Reforming Peacekeeping: What Liberia’s Contested Peace Teaches Us

In early 2026, United States (US) President Donald Trump announced substantial cuts to US funding for several international organisations, including the United Nations. As of 2025, the US was responsible for 22 percent of the UN general budget and 26 percent of the peacekeeping budget. The Trump administration has significantly reduced US contributions to the UN, with potential implications for its operations, particularly peacekeeping. The 2026 peacekeeping budget has decreased by 10 percent, even as peacekeeping operations continue to be scaled back. Peacekeeping operations have been active globally for the last 80 years, particularly across Africa. Since UN peacekeeping began in 1948, the United Nations has deployed 71 peacekeeping operations worldwide. Of these, more than 30—roughly 42 percent—have been deployed on the African continent. For a continent that relies heavily on international peacekeeping efforts, the recent budget cuts and efforts to reduce UN peacekeeping operations could have serious consequences.

The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), one of the UN’s most successful yet controversial missions, offers a useful case for examining international and regional peacekeeping, their impact, and what they can teach us about future missions.

Focusing only on UN deployments, however, ignores the efforts of African-focused coalitions such as the Economic Community of West Africa. Taken together, international and regional peacekeeping efforts in Africa have been extensive. With so many different organisations and objectives, it becomes difficult to understand which strategies are actually effective for building and maintaining lasting peace in post-conflict environments. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), one of the UN’s most successful yet controversial missions, offers a useful case for examining international and regional peacekeeping, their impact, and what they can teach us about future missions.

When discussing peacekeeping operations, it’s important to understand the limitations of peacekeeping operations (PKOs) and how they function. Peacekeeping personnel are not mercenaries, nor are they meant to participate in active combat. Peacekeepers may sometimes be mandated to protect civilians, but not to support one armed group over another. All peacekeeping missions have specific mandates, but the general goal is to build and maintain lasting democratic peace, a type of peace that is both long-term and upheld by regular, reliable democratic processes. Peacekeeping effectiveness is judged primarily by how well the operation executes its mandate.

Liberia and the Limits of Peacekeeping

The Liberian conflict is long-standing and complex, culminating in two separate civil wars, one lasting from 1989 to 1996 and the second beginning almost immediately afterwards in 1997 and lasting until 2003. Conflict stemmed largely from inequality and strife between the native Liberian populations and the Americo-Liberian ruling class, who began arriving in Liberia in the 1820s. The influence of American colonialism can be felt throughout the nation in many forms, but none more evident than the intense and lasting political conflict it inspired. Americo-Liberians held absolute power until 1980, when Samuel Doe led a violent coup d’etat against the established Americo-Liberian government. Doe would maintain a firm grip on power until Charles Taylor’s 1989 coup, which threw the nation into what would become nearly two decades of civil war.

ECOMOG: Regional Intervention, Limited Results

ECOWAS first attempted peacekeeping in Liberia through its now-defunct PKO, the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG). ECOMOG entered the country in 1990, only a year after the onset of civil war, and faced immediate challenges. Composed of soldiers from multiple ECOWAS member states, ECOMOG faced a stark divide between French- and English-speaking populations, as well as serious political infighting. ECOMOG operated with the express goal of facilitating peace talks and a lasting ceasefire, working in conjunction with the displaced former president Doe. Opposition forces were opposed to this attempt at mediation, going so far as to label ECOMOG an army of occupation. On 9 September 1990, an opposition contingent attacked ECOMOG headquarters in Monrovia, and Samuel Doe was captured and executed after 12 hours of violent torture.

Following this episode, ECOMOG continued operations in Liberia on a smaller scale, focusing primarily on civilian protection.ECOMOG’s presence in Liberia was also argued to have prolonged the first civil war, as opposition forces weaponised its presence to justify continued fighting. ECOMOG was also accused of numerous human rights violations during its operation. There were several more failed attempts to establish an effective ceasefire before ECOMOG’s ultimate withdrawal in 1998. Under international pressure, ECOWAS established a follow-up mission in Liberia in 2003: the ECOWAS Mission in Liberia, which operated from September to October of that year before being incorporated into UNMIL.

UNMIL: Success with Significant Caveats

One of the most prominent peacekeeping interventions in the Liberian conflict was UNMIL, deployed by the UN from 2003 to 2018. The final conflict of the second Liberian civil war occurred in late July 2003, just before the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement went into effect. ECOWAS immediately deployed peacekeeping forces to begin facilitating the transition, though UNMIL had taken over those efforts by October.

UNMIL is largely regarded as a UN peacekeeping success. Especially when compared to missions in regions such as Darfur or Gaza, UNMIL was able to facilitate the peaceful demilitarisation of rebel forces, reintegrate fighters into civilian life, and support three democratic elections. When the UN exited Liberia in 2018, it left behind a country that had undergone considerable change and has remained among the more peaceful and democratic nations on the African continent.

Though UNMIL ultimately accomplished its mandate and was technically successful, the operation was far from perfect. The mission was highly controversial, particularly because of peacekeeper conduct. During the UNMIL period, between 2003 and 2018, nearly half of Liberian women reportedly engaged in some form of transactional sexual activity. Of these instances, more than 75 percent involved UN peacekeeping personnel. While the UN prohibits peacekeepers from abusing their position to exploit vulnerable populations, concerns have persisted over the effectiveness of safeguards in practice. Such relationships raise concerns about the abuse of power, particularly in a country where sexual violence had been a defining feature of the conflict. These allegations can also undermine trust in peacekeeping personnel among affected communities.

The timing and manner of UNMIL’s withdrawal also faced significant criticism. The UN was accused of ending the mission prematurely due to funding constraints, rather than because it had fully achieved its mandate. Many Liberian officials urged the UN to continue UNMIL, given the extent to which the country’s economic and political security relied on the UN presence. More than 15 years after the end of the conflict, UNMIL had not fully succeeded in consolidating Liberia’s democracy. Although Liberia remains one of the more functional states in Africa, its political processes continue to face challenges related to corruption and instability.

What Liberia Tells Us About Peacekeeping

Liberia can be considered a peacekeeping success story. While far from perfect, the nation has transformed from a country marked by civil war and ethnic violence into a more peaceful and stable state. This transformation raises questions about the extent to which peacekeeping contributed to Liberia’s progress. ECOMOG’s record was mixed and fell well short of its intended objectives. UNMIL has a more positive track record, but peacekeeper conduct nonetheless raises questions about the mission’s broader impact.

Despite its many limitations, peacekeeping statistically decreases violent outcomes in armed conflict.

Peacekeeping as it exists today does not always achieve its stated objectives, and when it does, those missions are regularly faced with allegations of racism and human rights abuses. If UNMIL is considered one of the UN’s most successful missions, that raises questions about the effectiveness of current and future UN efforts. UN peacekeeping operations (PKOs) are in decline; the number of active peacekeepers has decreased by nearly 50 percent, while no new operations have been commissioned since 2014.

Despite its many limitations, peacekeeping statistically decreases violent outcomes in armed conflict. While ECOMOG failed to fulfil its mandate, its replacement, the ECOWAS Standby Force, has been effective in conflict intervention, specifically in coup prevention. Currently, 5 of the 11 active UN missions are in Africa. Whatever their shortcomings, UN PKOs continue to save lives. A future without any form of peacekeeping would almost certainly mean an increase in prolonged violent conflict, particularly on the African continent.

Peacekeeping remains a valuable tool that must be reevaluated and reformed to better serve the people it aims to protect.

However, the UN’s experience in Africa highlights the need for change in how it operates and communicates with local and continental leaders to ensure that peacekeepers act in the best interests of civilians. Peacekeeping remains a valuable tool that must be reevaluated and reformed to better serve the people it aims to protect.

Kennedy Graham is a Research Intern at the Observer Research Foundation.

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